GLOBALIZATION,
MIGRATION
Valerie M Inchley
¡§We are living in an
unprecedented age of mobility and migration.¡¨[1]
INTRODUCTION
Globalization[2], concerns
the relatively recent acceleration (since the 1970s) in cross-border (usually
trans-national) flows of money, commodities, weapons, information, ideologies
(political, cultural, religious), pollutants ¡V and people. The resulting world-wide
interconnectedness of ¡§communities, states, international institutions,
non-governmental organizations and multinational corporations¡¨ (Held and McGrew
2000:27) reflects in real-life what is already enmeshed in real-time on the
world-wide web. This ¡§postcolonial
world is a place of mixture¡¨ (Young 2003:129).
Friedman
(Guthrie 2000:158) identifies the driving force behind globalization[3]
as neo-liberal capitalism (economic flows), hence globalization is increasingly
seen negatively by Christians because its underlying ethos is selfish
consumerism. Conversely, Guthrie
(2000:167) notes that ¡§Christianity is often equated with the modern
[globalized] world and thus blamed for its ills¡K¡¨ while Duchrow probably over-states
the issue by comparing globalization with fascism and regarding it as a
confessional issue (Heslem 2004:85).
More realistically, Stackhouse insists that the religious dimension is
so important it needs to be an integral part of globalization studies (2000:11). In the Nepali context of this paper, this
primarily means Hinduism and Christianity.
The church,
as Forward (2001:67), Guthrie (2000:160) and Escobar (2003:53) suggest, must
accept that much of globalization is a fait accompli; so must learn to live
within its socio-cultural structure, utilise its positive features, counteract
negative ones, understand how it will affect mission, and plan innovatively, while
remaining aware that ¡§simply rid[ing]¡K the crest of the globalization wave¡K might
end by changing the very nature of the gospel¡¨ (Escobar 2003:57).
Migration (flows of
peoples), is sometimes merely regarded as part of cultural globalization, but I
feel with Dahal (2005:4-5) that it is vitally important because it involves
people, as opposed to money, systems and things. Held and McGrew (2000:281) also see it
as the most ubiquitous. Heide and
Hoffmann (2001:225) say that ¡§conceiving of migration as an isolated event
violates the holistic character of human life and society.¡¨ Recently, I moved house: it was an
unsettling, disruptive and expensive exercise but also a wonderful chance to
have a clearout and new start. This
epitomises migration.
This paper
seeks to describe this migratory aspect of globalization in the current context
of
GLOBALIZATION
IN
¡§The beginning
of globalization is the end of geography¡¨ (Thompson - Dahal 2005:6), but
globalization always has both geographical and social dimensions (Held and
McGrew 2000:283).
1.
Economic and Financial Factors
2.
Socio-Political Factors
Nepali
society is fatalistic.
Consequently, offices are frequently unattended, roads un-mended and
hospital patients untended.
3.
Ideological and Cultural Factors
4.
Violence and Environmental Factors
All these
globalizing factors combine to give a milieu in which more and more people are
moving within and outside the country (Heide and Hoffmann 2001:74).
MIGRATORY
FLOWS IN THE NEPALI CONTEXT
¡§
¡§For around
200 years, men (and to a lesser extent women) from
The Nepali
Diaspora includes all these possibilities.
Many have settled outside
This gives
differing experiences of ¡¥diaspora or migrant identity¡¦(Young 2003:207). Permanent migrants often exhibit features
of hybridity: temporary ones often face an ¡¥identity crisis¡¦ on returning to
Several
writers discuss the ¡¥push-pull¡¦[12]
factors of migration. ¡¥Pushes¡¦ include
population growth, poverty (low wages/unemployment), political/religious/racial
oppression, natural disasters (famine/drought) and social loneliness, while ¡¥pulls¡¦
may be employment offers/opportunities, better medical-social provision, and
political-religious tolerance (Hornby 1980:86, Lutz 1996:345ff). Upreti (2000:7) sees both as significant
for
There are at
least 9 overlapping migratory flows in the Nepali context¡K
1.
Urban Drift
Rapid
urbanization is one of the crucial issues in 21st century mission
(Sunderaraj, EMQ 1999:42). By
2010 most of the world will be town-dwellers, but ¡§the sheer scale and speed of
rural-urban migration [is]¡Kdaunting¡¨ (Cohen 2000:201-2).
Hornby
(1980:90ff) and Cohen (2000:202) note the step-wise movement from villages to
towns to outside the country.
Internal trade
migration has long been practised by Newars and Thakalis (Heide and Hoffmann
2001:87; Perry 1997:17). ¡§Foreign
labour migration [also] has a long history in
2.
¡¥Brawn Drain¡¦[13]
¡§International
labor migration is an increasingly important livelihood strategy in
The 1991
census recorded 600,000 Nepali workers in India but actual figures are
probably 2-5 times higher, due to large numbers of unregistered migrants
crossing an open border (Seddon 2001:43; Thieme et al Mountain Research and
Development May 2005:109,112).
Most are from the food-deficit western half of the country ¡V where the
Maoist insurgency is strongest. Emigration
to
To date ¡§most
of the international migration of
In the 1980-90s,
opportunities opened for Nepalis in ¡¥Arab¡¦[14]
(Lutz 1996:321,2) ¡§which is at the moment the most rapidly growing region for
Nepali labour migrants overseas¡K [and] also relatively formalised, [with
recruitment through]¡K registered manpower agencies¡¨ (Seddon 2001:69). However, most charge at least 50,000 Rs[15]
and some defraud applicants. A
friend recently paid 400,000 Rs for
More
recently, Nepalis have begun to travel to other Asian countries, like
¡§Most of the
jobs¡Kfall into the general category... of the ¡¥three Ds¡¦ (difficult, dirty and
dangerous)¡¨ (Seddon 2001:57).
3.
Internally Displaced Peoples
In the 1970s
there was a movement of hill peoples to the southern Terai where these
¡¥Sukumbasis¡¦ (squatters) were eventually allocated free government land. The ¡¥Kamaiyas¡¦ (bonded labourers), who always
lived on the Terai but had been ¡¥enslaved¡¦ by high-castes, were recently
¡¥freed¡¦ by government but this meant the landowners ejected them from work and
home. These were forerunners of
today¡¦s IDPs. By the end of
2004, 38,191 Nepalis had been displaced due to the Maoist conflict (Nepal
Human Rights Handbook, 2005), but other estimates (Norwegian Refugee
Council) put the total displacement from villages to towns as nearer 200,000. ¡§Rural villages are being
depopulated. Many leave
4.
Street Children
The increase
in number of street children worldwide, ¡§is due to rapid urbanization and
massive population displacement¡¨ (Kilbourn 1997:20), accelerated in
5.
Gurkhas
After the
Anglo-Nepali war of 1815-16, the British Army, so ¡§impressed by the fighting
capacity of the Gurkhas¡¨ started to recruit them. ¡§Thus a stream of Nepalese migration to
¡§Employment
in [British and Indian] armed forces is still an attraction
[especially] for the Nepalese [hill tribes]¡¨ (Upreti 2002:46). There are still >100,000 Nepalis in the Indian
Army (Heide and Hoffmann 2001:173).
There
is ¡§continuity in [army] recruitment, leading to a concentration of such
migrants in certain regions, certain villages and even certain families¡¨
(Seddon 2001:67). Interestingly,
labour migration is most significant from the same hill regions (Seddon
2001:61) from which the Gurkhas are recruited.
6.
¡¥Brain Drain¡¦
The
professionals are a smaller, but significant group, who migrate to the west ¡V
initially for post-graduate study ¡V but then often remain. Ahmad (BMJ 2 July 2005:43) recognizes
that the benefits [remittances] to the origin country are outweighed by the
losses [depletion of skilled health manpower]. Other students spend 1-3 years abroad and
then return. Some desert their
studies, taking menial employment, because it pays relatively well, despite
being incommensurate with their skills.
7.
¡¥Flesh Trade¡¦
¡§Cross-border
trafficking and kidnapping of children from rural villages to sell in major
cities are common occurrences [worldwide]¡K Many of these children are deceived,
kidnapped or sold by their parents or relatives¡K¡¨ (Kilbourn 1997:26-7). In the early 1990s this was recognized
as a problem in
8.
Refugees and Asylum Seekers
¡§Today
worldwide there are 20 million refugees[16],
[increasing numbers of asylum seekers[17]
and], 30 million ¡¥displaced¡¦ persons[18]¡¨
(Prencipe in Fisher 2003:255), all of whom ¡§share the experience of profound
displacement¡¨ (Pohl Missiology 2005:4). This does not include the migrant
workers (150m), illegal entrants and ¡¥overstayers¡¦.
In the Nepali
context, there have been two major groups of refugees: in the 1950s, Tibetans
fled the Chinese; and in the 1990s, Bhutanese Nepalis were thrust out of
their homes due to ethnic cleansing in
Prior to the
Maoist People¡¦s War, few sought asylum outside
9.
Expatriates
¡§
Cohen
(2002:212-214) notes the significant contribution of international tourists[19]
to globalization with the ¡§boundaries¡K between hosts and guests¡K becoming
increasingly blurred.¡¨ After 1960,
tourism flourished rapidly,[20]
becoming the major source of hard currency, and facilitating economic
development, but, because it ¡§thrives on peace¡¨ (Satyal 2004:19), since 1999,
numbers are drastically down and the economy adversely affected by the Maoist
conflict.
Similarly,
from 1951/2 missions (e.g. International Nepal Fellowship, United
Mission to
MISSION
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Cho
envisioned these people flows as ¡§a new highway for missions¡K¡¨ (Guthrie
2000:134) and already some are exploring appropriate linkages (Escobar
2003:66,164). INF is beginning to identify
needs and opportunities within
Chandran
identifies the South Asian Diaspora (including Nepalis) distributed among 64
nations, as a major challenge for cross-cultural mission (EMQ 2004:450). It is well known that diaspora people
are usually ¡§more open to the gospel than their compatriots back at home¡¨ (Jung
Connections 2005 Vol 4 No 3), but also ¡§migrants from poor countries who
travel in search of economic survival (may) carry the Christian message¡K with
them¡¨ (Escobar 2003:66). Wan (Missiology
Jan 2003:35) links these two as something the Filipino church has taken
seriously ¡V and so helped establish a Nepali church in Qatar (Pantoja et al
2004:163). Filipino theologians
have Biblically concluded that ¡§God use[s] suffering, persecution, and
dispersion as the context for expanding his kingdom¡K¡¨ (
1.
Traditionally
missions have concentrated on rural areas where government workers were
lacking, but increasingly urban Integral Mission is needed. INF has such a programme in Nepalgunj.
Many pastors
take in (semi-)orphaned children referred to them, but few have concentrated on
the street children who have no advocates. CARNet links all agencies working with
children at risk.
Several NGOs
(Christian and secular) have been established to help (HIV positive) returning
CSWs, but the bigger need ¡V and more difficult task ¡V is to rescue girls
from the brothels of
Overall,
little has been done officially to help IDPs although ¡§INF has been
highlighting the problem since 2002¡¨ (Galpin 2005:5). INF started its own Displaced People¡¦s
Initiative in the Mid-West in 2003 ¡V providing vital resources, training,
funding and advocacy to local organisations, including some run by churches
(Seaman ¡V Today in Nepal October 2005:6).
In the 1980s,
INF ran a Community Health training programme in the 4 Tibetan Camps around
Pokhara. Latterly, others have
organised health camps, evangelistic outreach and training courses in the
Bhutanese refugee camps on the eastern border.
After being
recipients of the gospel for 50 years, Nepalis are now moving out in
(cross-cultural) mission.
The Nepal Gospel Outreach Centre is extending its correspondence courses
and church-planting activities to Nepali communities in
Tourists are befriended
in
2.
There are 10m
Nepalis in
Many are temporary
labourers who would return immediately if
INF is
developing a tripartite programme involving partnership, holistic mission and
advocacy ¡V to reduce migrant vulnerability and increase support ¡V by linking
their home areas in Karnali with border crossings and destination areas in
India (Galpin 2005:8-11). As no
organisations ¡V or churches ¡V are actively reaching out to these seasonal
migrants (Bahadur 2002) INF plans to promote action[23]
and raise HIV/AIDS awareness.
Thieme et al
(Mountain Research and Development May 2005:112) mention two secular
programmes: ¡¥Pauraki¡¦ (entrepreneur) which broadcasts 15 mins. weekly information
on issues of importance to migrants; and South Asia Study Centre that has helped
migrants to get banking facilities.
Christians learn from and add to these.
Satish
Chhetri[24]
has discovered at least 5,000 Nepalis in each of 17 major Indian cities:
800,000 in Mumbai alone. Apart from
the NE where many states have a majority Nepali population, there are 2.8
million Nepalis in
3.
¡§Historically,
Nepali Christian fellowships overseas have been Gurkha-related¡¨ Perry
1997:348): the phenomenon of migrant workers is recent. Most are non-skilled labourers: a few
are students. They remain overseas
only long enough (2-10 years) to pay off their debts and return home with some
capital funds. In all countries,
there are exciting accounts of churches springing up among the Nepali
populations. Long hours of work,
restrictions on friendships etc. make outreach difficult but not impossible.
Nepali
settlement in
There are >160,000
(registered) Nepali migrant workers in
The first
Nepali church was established in the Gulf in
4.
The ¡¥West¡¦
Many ¡¥western
countries host significant Nepali populations. There is a vibrant Nepali fellowship
(>50) in
Bradley
(2005:2) has been researching the locations of (ex-)Gurkhas, professionals,
students, workers (some illegal) and asylum seekers and has discovered the
network is so effective a visit to a Nepali restaurant rapidly puts one in
touch with the local community. He
has met with Christian Nepali students (on INF scholarships) in the UK and
visitors from India and Nepal and now suggests that as well as taking up
outreach opportunities, INF offers teaching, literature, contact with student
organisations and missions, and makes links with Nepal for the believers. In particular, pastoral care and Biblical
teaching are needed, which could currently be provided by expatriates with good
Nepali language skills rather than importing a Nepali pastor. This fits with Lottis¡¦ challenge for
missionaries on furlough ¡V and ex-missionaries ¡V to move out of their home
church-supporters circles and respond to the opportunities all around them (EMQ
1989:258).[29]
In many
countries, there are secular Nepal-friendship organisations linking NRNs
with those back home and sometimes also giving financial support. Low-key involvement by Christians has so
far been welcomed.
The Gurkhas
are a special case ¡V scattered throughout the Diaspora. Contact was previously difficult because
of restrictions against proselytism (Perry 1997:319-20) ¡V and yet ¡V friendships
were fruitfully made and led to the founding of many churches back in
The Home
Office appreciates interpretation assistance for interviewing asylum seekers
but this virtually rules out the chance to make friendships.
CONCLUSION
¡§Migration is not just
one of the dominant features of our globe; it is one of the most significant
opportunities for mission today¡¨ (Missiology Jan 2003). Pohl, confirms that people are more open
to the gospel when uprooted from their traditional culture/context (Missiology
Jan 2003:4,36) and especially when in transition or undergoing trauma (Wan in Pantoja et al:117). Diaspora people are ¡§open to discussing
God, religion and prayer¡K [although] a syncretistic mindset often prevents th[em]¡K
accepting the gospel¡K¡¨ (Chandran EMQ 2004:453-4). As Ingleby says (Encounter Mission Ezine August 2004:4)
¡§People in mixed situations [are]¡K needy and¡Kreceptive.¡¨ Because of their
hybridity, migrants may themselves become change-agents (Young 2003:219). Although Nepali society is itself
pluralistic, increasing exposure to global Christianity offers new challenges
for inter-faith dialogue and evangelism, but ¡§in general the churches¡¦ response
to the challenge of diaspora in host nations has been poor¡¨ (Chandran EMQ:
2004:453) ¡V although MMK is an extraordinary exception.
Pantoja et al
conclude that ¡§the phenomenon of diaspora provides both the opportunity and
challenge of preserving demonstrative Christian unity in the context of
diversity¡¨ (2004:106). It demands
¡§a [new] theology of Christians missions in terms of multi-culturalism and
ethnicity, inter-racial relationship and Christian hospitality¡¨ (Ibid 107) and ¡§a
new missiological paradigm to cope with the opportunities¡¨ (Ibid 110). ¡§If Christianity is to continue to
expand throughout the Nepali diaspora, the vision [and prayer] of the mid-20th
century missionaries¡K for reaching the whole Nepali world needs to be revived¡K
th[is] challenge is chiefly to Nepali Christian churches and organisations
themselves, both within and without
¡§Christianity is a
migratory religion¡K¡¨[30]
¡§Diaspora¡K [is] God¡¦s
strategic tool to achieve His
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Omar B. ¡¥Managing medical migration
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John 2005) Report on Work amongst Nepalis in the
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P Emil ¡¥South Asian Diaspora ¡V Challenges and Opportunities¡¦ Evangelical
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Robin and Paul Kennedy (2000) Global Sociology,
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Madan K (Ed) (2005) Impact of Globalization in
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Published in ¡§Featured Article¡¨ July
2007 www.globalmissiology.org
[1]
Jung Connections 2005 Vol 4 No 3
[2] Not found in my 1988
Indian-Nepali COD!
[3] Steger 2003:7-9, 94
distinguishes between globalism (the ideology) globalization (the process) and
globality (the condition).
[4] The per capita GNP is $200
(Dahal 2005:10).
[5] ¡§About 60 percent of its
developmental budget comes from foreign aid and grants.¡¨ (Ibid 55)
[6] Family ¡¥source-force¡¦.
[7] ¡§Defined by its geography
rather than by a founder, a book, a set of doctrines or creed, or a
paradigmatic event¡¨ (Thomas ¡V Stackhouse 2002:216).
[8] ¡§Determined by biology
[birth]¡¨ (Ibid 219).
[9] In 1991, 105,872 Nepalis went
abroad: in 2004 the figure was 268,000 (Pantee and Adhikari, Himalayan Times,
[10] Lit. ¡¥a scattering through¡¦
of people through dispersion or migration.
[11] Those who move their
residence permanently/long-term (>1yr) from one administrative unit to
another.
[12] This states that ¡§for any
individual the decision to migrate results from the interplay of two forces:
pressures at his permanent place of residence (pushes) and inducements from a
number of potential destinations (pulls)¡¨ (Hornby 1980:86).
[13] My term.
[14] Nepali term for all Gulf
countries. ¡§The main
labour-importing states in the region have been
[15] Approx. 130 Rs = £1.
[16] Those fleeing from a real threat of
persecution in their country of origin.
[17] Those whose claims for refugee status
have not yet been recognised.
[18] Those who have been pushed from their
normal place of residence by war, civil conflict or an ecological disaster such
as a fire, flood, hurricane of volcano.
[19] Those who remain in a country
for at least 24 hours.
[20] 6,000 in 1962 to 396,000 in
1997 (Satyal 2000:22-3).
[21] Interestingly, himself exiled
from
[22] Perry (1997:358) notes a big
difference between NW and
[23] Attention to the four
patterns of expansion identified by Perry (1997:363-5) may prove valuable in
this new phase of outreach.
[24] Information from the Nepali
Diaspora networking meeting,
[25] A network of 11 churches
based near KL.
[26] I had the privilege of
teaching at one such camp in Jan 06 and am currently arranging for a similar
programme in
[27] Outreach to Foreigners
[28] See 26
[29] I am currently corresponding
with John Bradley about teaching a seminar in Reading this summer.
[30] Hanciles in Pantoja et al
2004:117
[31] Jung ¡V Connections
2005 Vol. 4 No. 3.