The Impact
of Modernity on Spirituality
Pastor, Home of Christ Church in
New Testament and Pastoral Theology,
Published in Global Missiology, Spiritual Dynamics,
January 2004, www.globalmissiology.net
Privatization
and its effects on spirituality
Pluralism
and its effect on spirituality
Rationalization
and its impact on spirituality
Seek me and live;
do not seek
do not go to Gilgal,
do not journey to
For Gilgal will surely go into exile,
and
During the
time of Amos
We can look
at the experience of Israelite society from several perspectives. We can look
at this passage from a theological or homiletical
perspective in that the people of God should be sensitive to the moral
character of the God they worship. We may even say that the heart is deceitful,
and that God always has to send His prophets to confront evil and to denounce
sin. This is so at every age of human history, even during the time of the
redeemed society of
Citing Amos
is but only a convenient springboard to a discussion on spirituality and
modernity. Are there any resemblances?
To set the stage for a discussion it
may be appropriate to have a brief definition of the term modernity. As early
as 1929 political commentator Walter Lippmann spoke of the "acids of
modernity" which were "dissolving the traditional understanding of
the universe that previously had enabled human beings to explain all their
relevant experience" (quoted in Smith, 1985, 1). Modernity can be used to
describe the "overarching
intellectual ideology of a historical period whose hegemony has lasted from the
French Revolution to the present . . . and whose sociological features have
been accurately delineated by writers such as . . . Peter Berger" (Oden, 1990, 46, emphasis his)." This "overarching
ideology" has changed the traditional mindset of people in society. It is
an understanding of reality which enables human beings to explain all their
relevant experiences and which controls their thinking and gives the rationale
for acting the way they do. The mindset we have today is generally attributed
to the results of three great revolutions in human history -- the capitalist
revolution which started in the fifteenth century, the industrial or
technological revolution which started in the late eighteenth century, and the
ideological revolutions in the eighteenth and nineteenth century (Guinness,
1990, 284).
We can also understand the notion of
modernity by looking at the change from "traditional" society to
"modern" society. This change, coming in the wake of the industrial
and ideological revolutions, saw the growth of cities as society urbanized, the
exponential expansion of information and technology, and the state taking over
social services like welfare and education. As a result the individual was
uprooted from his tribe, ethnic group, or village, etc. The individual ends up
looking at himself as an individual.
Freed from this "tradition-bound" mindset the individual has to
"reconstruct" his mindset or self-identity from a plurality of roles:
as a member of a family, ethnic group, a taxpayer and voter, etc. (Kwok, 1993,
5-6).[i][1] Furthermore,
due to urbanization there is an influx of people from different villages and
localities. As a result "a broad spectrum of more or less distinct
cultural traditions are brought in close proximity to one another"
(Hunter, 1983, 12). Such a plurality of distinct cultural traditions has an
impact on the individual's religious outlook. He often has to deal with
competing monopolistic views on religion and quite often the individual tends
toward treating religion as a "private matter."
1.1 An
example of such a world view which controls thoughts and behaviour is
appropriate here. Researchers have noted that older Hongkongers
have a "weaker propensity to take legal action or engage in litigious
undertakings" (Lau, 1988, 6). They explain this as being the result of a
mindset which is best expressed in a Chinese aphorism: sheng bu ru
guanmen, si bu ru diyu
(you avoid entering the door of the officials when you are living just as you
avoid going to hell after death). This explains the traditional reluctance of
many to have anything to do with the authorities. Many attitudes and
philosophies are explained by such aphorisms.
This attitude is certainly not that
of modern Hongkongers or, for that matter, modern
Singaporeans. Obviously a change in mindset has resulted. Sociologists have
noted that such an overarching ideology or reality is socially constructed. Our
mindset often mirrors the world around us. As the society changes, our mindset
changes, while we remain largely unaware of these changes. Hence, it is
important that to understand such developments in our world and how our faith
and practice have been modified. Too often such modification is a distortion of
the gospel.
1.2 Another
example of how our mindset changes as a result of the changes in society is
Neil Postman's analysis of the change from the "typographic mind"
prior to the nineteenth century to the "show business" mentality of
the late twentieth century. He cites the interesting debate between Abraham
Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas in
1.2.1 Leaders in
One may
think that Western society with a free press is at a greater risk than a
society such as
Sut Jhally, professor of communications at the
Not only is
the MTV generation afflicted by the "curse" of the short attention
span. The wonderful technological device -- the TV remote control -- is causing
fundamental changes to television broadcasting. Because there is such a wide
number of channels, people are tempted to change channels (channel surfing)
after only a few seconds if the programme does not hold their attention. Hence,
TV has to "move." Even politicians in the US take pains to express
their view in a few seconds so that
they appear "live" on the screen giving comments rather than to risk
having their speech summarized with only a photograph of themselves shown, if
they spoke "too long."
There are
other constraints too. The land mass in
The shows
that will be imported are those which are popular. Never mind
that Bart Simpson is condemned by many educationists, and that Baywatch and
other "soap operas" have no "cultural" value. Then
again there are shows like Wheel of Fortune, which encourages conspicuous
consumption as the audience "wows" over the fabulous prizes.[ii][2]
The church
consists of members who are also members of society. As such they cannot be
unaffected by the values and mores of society. It is our duty, therefore, as
leaders of the church to be aware of the dangers, sound the warning and to
reflect on what courses of action we can recommend.
The human
mindset is the product of society. When we speak of modernity it is helpful to
explicitly enumerate the elements. In the first chapter of this book Chuck Lowe
has analyzed the challenge of modernity. He argues that the basic effects of
modernity are a secularized, privatized and pluralized society. All these are inimical to religion, and
specifically, to Christianity. This paper will deal with the three and the way
they affect the concept and practice of spirituality.
The discussion of spirituality is
complicated by the fact that people often have different understanding of the
concept. Wuthnow (1994, 438), cites a study done by
Conrad Cherry, director of the Center for the Study
of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University, where 8% of respondents
regard spirituality as contact with a supernatural world, 5% call it a way of
life, 11% consider it as something about their own convictions and practices,
46% call it a system of beliefs or doctrines, 2% take it as a system of
morality, 16% don't know what it means, and 7% believe it has no meaning. On the
popular level spirituality is more likely to be taken as personal convictions
in contrast to religion, which is more likely to be related to churches or
organizations.
The
difficulty is further compounded by the lack of a model of evangelical spirituality.
We see this point discussed in McGrath (1993, 123-145) in a chapter entitled
"The Quest for an Evangelical Spirituality." One possible reason,
according to McGrath, is that many evangelicals are "born-again" and
as such come from a secular context rather than from a tradition with a deep
spiritual heritage. Similarly, Mark Noll (1994, 63) notes that the revival
experience of American evangelicalism often results in an attitude of anti
traditionalism. Evangelicalism seems, at best, to be ambivalent toward
spirituality, at worst, to have a "total lack of . . . interest in
spirituality" (McGrath, 1993, 126).
2.1 One characteristic of
"evangelical" spirituality is a balance between a "purely
intellectual or cerebral approach" and a "purely interiorized
approach" (McGrath, 1993, 129). The former engages the mind and nothing
else. If we are just interested in the study of theology and do not pay
attention to how it can affect our wills, our imaginations, our feelings, or if
we are not interested in how it may have a bearing on the miraculous then we
end up being dry and arid. On the other hand, a purely interiorized approach is
interested in the mystical to the extent that it has very little to do with the
realities of practical living in this
world. Another way of looking at "evangelical" spirituality is to
say that it seeks both to be Bible-centred and at the same time to engage and
transform the entire person as he relates to the world.
It is
Bible-centred because it is concerned with "the personal redemptive
encounter of the believer with Christ" (McGrath, 1993, 129). Bruce Waltke, in his discussion of evangelical spirituality
(1988, 9), cites the tradition of Augustine and Calvin where spirituality is
defined in terms of love of God and love of man. Waltke
notes approvingly that spirituality is grounded in the Shema
(Deut 6:4-5), "Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all
your soul and with all your strength," and reaffirmed in Jesus'
pronouncement of the greatest commandment (Mk
In an
earlier book Roots That Refresh, Alister McGrath describes spirituality as "the
Christian life." It is not ideas,
"but rather the way in which those ideas make themselves visible in the
life of Christian individuals and communities. Spirituality represents the
interface between ideas and life, between Christian theology and human
existence" (1991, 23). McGrath goes on to describe the fact that the
Protestant fathers are hesitant to use the term spirituality because of the
Roman Catholic association. Thus the more common description are words like
"devotion," "godliness," holiness," and
"piety" (1991, 24).
McGrath
(1991, 25) also relates the notion of spirituality to the traditional
discussion of the dichotomy between spirit and flesh. The
former deals with the cultivation of the "spiritual" which implies
the "interior nurture of the soul, undertaken in withdrawal from the
distractions of ordinary life." McGrath argues that an
interpretation of 1 Cor 2:14-15 leads one to the
position "of the 'spiritual' as life
in the world orientated towards God" instead of an argument for
withdrawal from the world. McGrath lists the key characteristics of Reformation
spirituality as: 1) being grounded and nourished on Scripture; 2) insisting
that the quest for human identity, authenticity, and fulfillment
cannot be undertaken in isolation from God; 3) recognizing the priesthood and
vocation of all Christian believers; and 4) grounded in and orientated towards
life in the everyday world, i.e., not withdrawing from the world.
2.2 Whereas some people may define
spirituality before embarking on a discussion, others approach the topic from
the perspective of the practice of spirituality. Some such books are Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life
(Willard, 1988) and The Spirit of the
Disciplines: Understanding How God Changes Lives (Whitney, 1991). Others,
like Christian Spirituality: Five Views
of Sanctification (Alexander, 1988) deal with how respective traditions
would deal with issues. Others speak of rediscovering the rich heritage of
spiritual renewal: Dynamics of Spiritual
Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal
(Lovelace, 1979). Dallas Willard (1988, 17) made an interesting remark when he
says that after Foster's Celebration of
Discipline in 1978, books on the subject became plentiful. He quoted
Foster's observation that during research on the topic he could not find a
single book published on the subject of fasting from 1861 to 1954. Willard gave
his opinion on why there is such a renewed interest lately (he refers to the
1980s). He believes that people in the 1970s perceived the 1960s as a period of
great laxness. "The images of hippies, street riots, and Dr. Spock were
strongly and negatively fixed in people's minds. There was generally a hunger
for order and a somewhat fearful sense that at the foundation of our personal
and social life lay forces that, if not carefully channeled,
could swallow us up in boredom or in chaos and violence" (1988, 19-20). He
suggested that this change in attitude toward spiritual discipline was also
responsible in producing the growth of psychology. Faith and practice,
unfortunately, did not bring about "peace or health of mind and soul"
let alone mature Christlikeness. Looking at the
comment of Willard it can be argued that McGrath's warning not to seek human
identity, authenticity and fulfilment in isolation apart from God (see above
2.1) is pertinent. We will have occasion to discuss this in section 3.2.3 in
this paper.
2.3 As stated earlier spirituality is both
Bible-centred and concerned with human transformation as believers relate to the world. Therein lies
both its strength and its weakness. Its strength lies in the possibility of
transforming society when it is vibrant and attractive. Both McGrath (1990) and
J. I. Packer (1990) feel that the spirituality as understood and practised by
the Puritans is the model which evangelicals should consider appropriating. But
there is a possible danger in the very fact that man has to relate his faith to
the world. This is because spirituality can so easily conform to the mindset of
the world.
The
conceptual difficulty of this paper lies in the choice of a model of
spirituality. To face the challenge of modernity one needs to have some idea of
what spirituality ought to be. We need to know and describe the tradition that
we ought be developing. But I have just noted that
evangelicalism does not have a model for spirituality. At best what we can do
is to describe what is happening and
what has happened. This brings us to
the next issue. Which spirituality should be the object of our inquiry?
Christianity came to
In this
essay I will be looking at the notion of spirituality from several angles. The
first is in the understanding of spirituality. This is the way a Christian
understands himself in relationship to God, to others, and to things. One
helpful category is what Max Weber describes as the "inner-world
asceticism," a term describing a "total life ethic," an entire
system of values, attitudes and beliefs about human conduct (Hunter, 1987, 50).
The assumption is that by comparing one's understanding
with that of previous generations one gets a sense of how the concept of
spirituality has changed. The second angle looks at how pluralism may have
enervated our spiritual vitality. The third is in the "practice" of
spirituality. This is the motivation, or lack of it, to attain new heights in
devotion and holiness. All three are somewhat related. For example, one's
understanding of himself in relation to God cannot be independent, at least for
Christianity, of the desire to attain a standard of holiness. Nonetheless a
distinction is drawn between knowing and doing because they neatly reflect how
privatization has affected the understanding of spirituality, and how
secularization (evidenced by scientific or managerial rationalism) has affected
the practice of spirituality.
3 Privatization
and its effects on spirituality
One of the
features of modernity is the dichotomy between the public and private domain.
In modern societies, institutions like the modern state, professions,
bureaucracies (such as education and National Service), and the modern
corporation have sprung up. These institutions define what is normative in
terms of the mode of thought, conduct, and social relationships. At the same
time what is "left over" are the private aspects; e.g., social
relationships, family, a person's sense of identity, and the way he constructs
meaning in life. One effect is that in the process of constructing the self one
ends up very differently from his forbears. The second effect is the problem
that the public sphere is often big and impersonal, abstract and alienating.
The individual is left to seek out in the private world that which he lacks; e.g.,
freedom, satisfaction. The role that religion plays is confined more and more
to the private domain, and the satisfaction of personal needs.
3.1 The construction of self-identity
David Lyon
(1985, 61) notes that one impact of modernity is the effect on personal
identity. A person once was brought up in a world or region where personal
identity was a given. Because of urbanization people from different regions and
religions come together. The person thus has to construct his identity from a
plurality of traditions. Passages in life (e.g., marriage) that used to
"connect" man and society are no longer stable. Berger (1993)
comments that a person may be baptized a Catholic, marry a Jew, and be buried according to Protestant rites. Nowadays identities
are more commonly reconstructed in the private sphere.
3.2 The Puritan "Inner-world
asceticism"
One of the
effects of privatization is that in the construction of the private individual
the spiritual dimension is reduced or taken away. In the past the spiritual
dimension or religious truth is intertwined with all areas of a person's life.
It has practical implications in all facets of a person's life. The interesting
question is to what extent this connection (the implications of religious truth
on all aspects of one's life) is broken? The question is how much are our
actions and attitudes motivated by our faith?
Max Weber
has coined the term "inner-worldly asceticism" to describe a
"total life ethic," an entire system of values, attitudes and beliefs
about human conduct. Using this framework Hunter (1987) carried out surveys on
Christian college and seminary students to gauge their view of spirituality.
Specifically he explored their notions of work, morality, and self-identity.
3.2.1 Work
The starting
point of the Puritan concept of work is very much related to the Reformation
rejection of the dichotomy of human affairs into the sacred and the profane.
The nature of the work, if it was to be for the glory of God, is not important.
Hence, one can serve God by mending shoes just as in preaching the Word. Work
which was legitimate carries divine approval. The general calling of God was
salvation in Jesus. The specific calling is one which "assigns people to
their tasks. In this view, work ceases to be impersonal . . . its importance
does not lie within itself; work is rather a means by which a person lives out
his or her personal relationship to God" (Ryken
1986, 27). This notion was reflected in the writings of English Puritan Richard
Baxter. He seems to have carried it a little further when he says, "Hard
physical or mental labor was a meaningful ascetic
technique which helped one resist temptation" (Carden,
1990, 150). Conversely, a slothful attitude could indicate an unregenerate
heart. Carden cites Weber that it was not labour
which has intrinsic worth. Rather "what was of greatest importance was the
rational, systematic, methodical, disciplined labor
of a specific calling, without which the accomplishments of a man are only
casual and irregular. . . . He spends more time in
idleness than at work." This legacy of asceticism left a deep mark on the
West.[iii][3]
What Hunter
(1987, 54) has found in his study of evangelical college and seminary students
is that they share a similar ethic of hard work. Hard work "is a good
builder of character" or that "being productive in life and making a
constant effort in a chosen field are among the most important qualities of
life." What is noteworthy, however, is that the rationale for such an
ethic are things like "a sense of independence and personal freedom,
purpose in life, and self-fulfillment," (the
so-called "affective" self-fulfillment
needs), and "need for friendship, love and affection, and even
marriage" (the so-called "affective" interpersonal relationships
needs) (Hunter, 1987, 56). What is clear is that the theological significance
of working in one's calling has diminished or disappeared. The spiritual
significance is no more there.[iv][4]
I am not
aware of any similar study in the
3.2.2 Morality
Christians
have always maintained the connection between right belief and morality. The
consequence of such a belief is that there are boundaries or limits as to what
a Christian can and cannot do. There is a theological justification in making
such a demand. The difference is between that of "godly living" and
"licentiousness." It was the desire to establish a new commonwealth
separate from the "evill and declininge
tymes" that prompted many of the Puritans to
leave for a new England (Carden,
1990, 27). It was a similar sentiment which prompted the believer to
"separate" himself from the world and not be "unequally
yoked" with unbelievers and "their habits of life" (Hunter,
1987, 57). The Christian believer was supposed to be different and conform to
such standards as a sign of his commitment within the Christian community.
It may be
worthwhile to point out that what these standards were is not the issue here.
Some of the views may be cultural. James Hunter has conducted surveys on the
view on morality of college students. He polled student's views on a range of
subjects which include smoking, dancing and drinking alcohol. The results of
his surveys were compared with earlier surveys in 1961 and 1951 (1987, 58-59;
but see p. 260 for a discussion of the reliability of comparisons). For example
in 1951 46% of Christian college students felt that attending
"Hollywood-type" movies were morally wrong. In 1961 the figure was
down to 14%. In 1982 no one maintained this view. In fact in 1982 only 7% of
Christian college students felt that attending "R" movies (somewhat
equivalent to
In 1951 98%
felt that the drinking of alcohol was morally wrong but only 17% felt likewise
in 1982. Even the percentage of students viewing pre-marital sex as morally
wrong dropped from 94% in 1963 to 89% in 1982. The only "stable"
result was extramarital sex which dropped from 98% to 97%.
There are
two noteworthy points. Hunter cites the remark of one student who had this to
say about such activities: "These things could be sinful if they become an
obsession but they are not intrinsically wrong." In the past the reason
for the Puritan condemnation was that they were "worldly conduct."
The second point is related in that the reasons for speaking out against such
practices have also changed. For example, in the 1950s the virtue of total
abstinence and the moral problem of
the consumption of alcohol were often argued. In 1980s the argument seems to
have shifted to the social problem of
alcoholism. Similarly pre-marital sex was roundly condemned as loose morals but
in the 1980s the focus was on "appreciating the human vulnerability to
sexual temptations and why yielding to them was wrong as well as how to
responsibly deal with those people who have sinned sexually (including unwed
mothers)" (Hunter, 1987, 62). In other words the stark and harsh tone
regarding what is sinful was gone.
One can
argue therefore that the traditional idea of worldliness has gone through some
changes. The earlier generations would understand the need for boundaries to
separate worldliness from holiness. To do so you need to maintain an exclusive
standard for the group. It did not matter that they were ostracized for their
stand. Indeed, the term "fundies" was used
as a pejorative term to refer to the "fundamentalists." They felt
that there was a moral authority for keeping such standards. The boundaries
were clear. The later generations would generally maintain similar standards,
since some standards like adultery and fornication are clearly laid down. Now
there is a greater degree of inclusiveness. Either because of, or as a result
of such a compassionate tone, more are added into the fold. The tendency is for
the boundaries to be blurred. Hunter argues that there is less social
cohesiveness as a result. He notes that
Sin is being
redefined. What had once been morally intolerable is now quite acceptable; what
had previously been a cause for exclusion from Christian fellowship does not
even call attention to itself. . . . Clearly some norms have not changed.
Evangelicals still adhere to prohibitions against premarital, extramarital, and
homosexual relations. But even here, the attitude toward those prohibitions has
noticeably softened. . . . Even the words worldly
and worldliness have, within a
generation, lost most of their traditional meaning.
How this
plays out in
3.2.3 The concept of self
One of the
hallmarks of the Puritans was self examination. There was a concern with the
spiritual exercise of searching oneself as a process of the modification of the
self. In the words of Packer (1990, 24) the Puritans knew "the dishonesty
and deceitfulness of fallen human hearts." They responded by cultivating
"humility and self-suspicion as abiding attitudes, and examined themselves
regularly for spiritual blind spots and lurking inward evils." This is
certainly not the same as the "irrational, emotional romanticism disguised
as super-spirituality" which Packer describes as rather morbid and
introspective. Rather "this discipline of self-examination, followed by
the discipline of confessing and forsaking sin and renewing one's gratitude to
Christ for his pardoning mercy" is "a source of great inner peace and
joy." There is a difference between motifying
the self in the pursuit of greater holiness and Christlikeness
and self-examination for self-fulfillment.
One can
describe the latter as a narcissistic search for self-understanding and self-fulfillment through the paradigm of an evangelical faith.
This trend plays out in the multiplication of means to meet these needs.
Basically the rationale behind such an attempt is to be relevant. Hunter (1983, 93) notes, in a review of publications of eight major
publishers, that a significant percentage deal with "emotional and
psychological complexities of human experience from an Evangelical
perspective." He adds that one of the underlying question is
"Who am I?" One may note that this question is in line with the
modern need to construct one's self-identity because of the dislocation of the
individual. In the past the individual knew his place. It is always a given (Baumeister, 1986).
Hunter cites a book where the author invites the reader to "explore
yourself and to know yourself perhaps more deeply than you have explored or
known before." Some interesting titles of like nature mentioned by Hunter
are: The Art of Understanding Yourself;
God's Key to Health and Happiness; Mental Health: A Christian Approach;
Psychology of Jesus and Mental Health. Another trend which is very much a
reflection of society is the concern for mental health, counseling
and therapy; hence, books like: I Want
Happiness, Now!; Defeating Despair and Depression; This Way to Happiness;
Feeling Good about Feeling Bad; Relax and Live Longer; How to Win over Worry.
How different is this from the modern narcissistic concern for the self and
hedonism? The broader culture of hedonism is epitomized by the phrase "If
it feels good, do it." Some of the titles which reflect an attempt to meet
such a reorientation are: Self-love;
Happiness: You Can Find the Secret; How To Be a Happy
Christian; The Gift of Joy.
One should
note that Christian literature does not necessarily promote narcissism or
hedonism. It may simply be that the authors hope to meet such a need in modern
man, arguing that in Christianity one can find fulfillment
too. On the other hand the constant exposure will definitely have the effect of
encouraging such a mindset. One is reminded of the argument put forward by the
media that they do not influence society but merely reflect it. There is a
certain truth is in this statement. The bottom line is ratings. If the public
does not buy the paper or watch the programmes they will be withdrawn. On the
other hand, as argued in sections 1.2 and 1.2.1, the media does have a profound
impact on society.
Other scholars
have noted that people are concerned with the quest for power. This culture is
reflected in the Church. Some advocate "power ministries,"
"power evangelism" and "power healing." Horton (1992, 14)
notes that there is a popular group of Christian weight-lifters traveling in the US breaking blocks of ice, chairs, and
tearing phone books in half "as a testimony to their central gospel:
Christ as a power-source." Predictably, the group is called "The
Power Team." If we look at this concern for power in the past we see a
vast difference. Power in the past was used to win the struggle over sin,
guilt, and the egoistic self. Today it is used for power to be switched on or
off. One suspects that the underlying motive in the desire for power is
dominance and gain (c.f. Parker, 24-26). The priority is pleasure, comfort,
soothing experiences. J. I. Packer calls it, in another book, a hot-tub
Christianity (1987, 53). Christians would move to another church whenever there
is a problem. They are tempted to play a game of spiritual merry-go-round. We
see the innumerable rounds of seminars and conferences on topics which are
well-attended. People end up like "spiritual butterflies," sucking
nectar from any available flowers, but forgetting that spiritual growth comes from
giving oneself and investing in a local ministry of the church.
From the
above discussion on work, morality, and the understanding of self we see that a
lot of the religious motivation has been cut. What motivates the Christian may
be personal fulfillment rather than a clear
connection with the faith that he believes in.
4 Pluralism
and its effect on spirituality
In the
previous section we have already discussed privatization. It is one way of
dealing with the monopolistic claims of religions or value systems. The other
is pluralism. This word has several
meanings.
Prejudices,
strong prejudices, are visions about the way things are. They are divinations
of the order of the whole of things, and hence the road to a
knowledge of that whole is by way of erroneous opinions about it. Error
is indeed our enemy, but it alone points to the truth and therefore deserves
our respectful treatment. The mind that has no prejudices at the outset is
empty (1987, 43).
The second
attitude seeks to correct the mistakes and tries to be right, whereas the first
thinks that you can never be right and, as such, it is not worth the bother.
Such a
philosophical pluralism affects one's attitude to tradition or heritage. This
attitude prevents or inhibits one from trying to reflect on tradition or the
past with the view of contextualising it for living in the present and for the
future. In the Christian world, especially in
I am
convinced that congregations learn more theology (good and bad) from the songs
they sing than from the sermons they hear. Many sermons are doctrinally sound
and contain a fair amount of biblical information, but they lack that necessary
emotional content that gets ahold [sic] of the
listener's heart. Music, however, reaches the mind and heart at the same time.
It has the power to touch and move the emotions, and for that reason can become
a wonderful tool in the hands of the Spirit or a terrible weapon in the hands
of the Adversary. Naive congregations can sing their way into heresy before
they can realize what is going on (1986, 137).
One may say
that there is nothing wrong with a buffet mentality but there are two possible
dangers. First, one danger is that in the process of "picking the
best" one is too often tempted to discard that which is not personally helpful. Os Guinness(1993, 83) makes a point in connection with the megachurch's penchant for change. There is an explicit
commitment to change and innovation. As such what happens is that when changes
are made things are swept away without a thought.
Guinness' response is to cite the typical reformer's response, "If you
don't see the use of it, I won't let you clear it away. Only when you come back
and say you do see the use of it, will I allow you to clear it away." He
further notes that "we are more morally and culturally short-sighted than
we realize -- and more foolish than we like to admit. . . . If something new is
emphasized, something old is overlooked" (1993, 83).
The second
danger is the possible loss of consistency in one's tradition. Each tradition
has its own logic and consistency. Take away the logic or consistency and we
lose our distinctiveness. What do I mean by consistency and logic? One good
example is the distinction between revelation and the Quaker's "Inner
Light." The Quakers waited for the Spirit to speak in and through them and
to them. To them Inner Light was just as important as Scripture. At the
beginning this group was rejected by both the Puritans and Anglicans alike.
Interestingly, modern-day descendants of this tradition, like Richard Foster,
are welcomed by the Evangelical world. I do
not mean to say that Richard Foster is a heretic. Indeed I find many
beneficial insights in his works and have recommended them to others. But what
I do mean is that there is an entire
edifice that may be at variance to ours and that we should think it through.
One example is the Renovare
Spiritual Formation Groups. One of the aims is the encouragement of renewal in
churches through the instrumentality of Spiritual Formation Groups. One method
is having a "well-balanced diet and exercise." This is achieved by
recognizing that there are five traditions (the contemplative, the holiness,
the charismatic, the social justice, and the evangelical movements), each of
which has strengths. Stephen Foster, in the Foreword says, "I like the
balanced vision. To be baptised into the great streams of Christian life and
faith helps to free me from my many provincialisms" (Smith, n.d., x).
4.1 I appreciate such efforts in marking out
the contributions of different spiritual traditions. There is also a measure of
truth when Foster says that a balanced vision helps to free one from many provincialism. Yet there is, in my opinion, a
down-side. In the first place diversity reinforces the perception that the
search for consistency in one's tradition is not important. One can after all
take what is good from another tradition. Yet the danger is that the believer
may end up having a buffet mentality leading to practices or theologies which,
at the very root, are antithetical to one's tradition. Applying Bloom's logic
there is a difference between knowing the strength and weaknesses of your
tradition, and not knowing anything about your background. For the latter, the
danger is that you are not anchored firmly and will be tossed and turned by
every whim of the moment. I see the Christian world being buffeted by many new
fads and happenings. Very often believers are at a loss as to how to react. One
solution is go back to the roots, reflect and
reformulate them to modern times. What I am suggesting is, again borrowing from
Bloom, an openness to seek greater understanding. It is the quest for the
strength of one's tradition but at the same time seeking to know its weakness
in the face of other traditions. The one who does not have any knowledge about
or interest in his tradition is susceptible to every and
any attack.
The key and
the difference is basically that of discipline and application. It is the
discipline of inquiry and the search for the truth. Taking one's tradition for
granted may breed complacency. There is no place for complacency or sloppiness.
I would like to argue that if we are sloppy and complacent about our own
tradition we would probably be sloppy and complacent in our attempt to engage
with the world. As argued in my discussion on the definition of spirituality we
need to apply all our creative energies to engaging society. McGrath (1993,
130) cites the analysis of John Waterhouse, an evangelical writer, on the
crisis facing evangelicalism in
Ten years
ago, I felt we were on the edge of an evangelical renaissance in
The cause,
according to Waterhouse, was "a loss of spiritual energy, originality and
creativity." McGrath puts it colourfully, "evangelicalism has become
lazy. It has borrowed other people's [spirituality]." Discipline and
application help us live for the future and maintain a
continuity with the past. This mingling of the classics with the modern,
to borrow Alister McGrath's comments (1991, 17) on
Reformation spirituality, makes us "well placed to address the needs of
our own day and age, where a consciousness of modernity is often tempered with
an awareness of the need for stability and continuity with the past." Only
when we seek our past and acquire from it understanding will we have a greater
sense of self-identity: who we are, how and where we come from, what and why we
are doing what we are doing. Understanding these would protect us from being
complacent and stunted in our inertia. These were the same forces which led to
a moribund theology and church ripe for the Reformation. At the same time our
understanding of the past would serve as a foil against change for the sake of
change. Indeed the past is another window to how things were and might well be. History is often the best critique of the "common
sense" of the presence. "The past must be allowed to question our own
presuppositions, and above all our natural tendency to suppose that the ideas,
practices and values of our own time are somehow better than those of the
past" (McGrath, 1991, 20).
4.2.1 But the reader may raise the question: Isn't a small group like,
such as the Spiritual Formation Group, for example, the best way of going back
to one's denominational roots or tradition? After all, there will be a
discussion of one's tradition, and a discussion of other traditions. Current
research of small groups suggest otherwise. If anything, it reinforces the
pluralistic mindset. This ministry is very popular in churches today. In the
1980s, "house groups" was the buzz word, a ministry patterned after
the successful movement of Paul (now David) Cho Yong-Gi.
Now in the 1990s it is "cell-groups." Wuthnow
(1994), has completed a massive study of the small
group phenomenon in the
"The
deity of small groups is a God of love, comfort, order, and security. Gone is
the God of judgment, wrath, justice, mystery, and punishment. Gone are concerns
about the forces of evil . . . interest in heaven and hell. . . . The small group movement is currently playing
a major role in adapting American
religion to the main currents of secular culture. Secularity is misunderstood
if it is assumed to be a force that prevents people from being spiritual at
all. It is more aptly conceived as an orientation that encourages a safe,
domesticated version of the sacred . . . a divine being is one who is there for
our own gratification. . . . When spirituality has been tamed, it can
accommodate the demands of a secular society. People can go about their daily
business without having to alter their lives very much because they are
interested in spirituality. Secular spirituality can even be put to good use,
making people more effective in their careers, better lovers, and more
responsible citizens. This is the kind of spirituality being nurtured in many
small groups today" (1994, 7).
4.2.2 Second, the dynamics of interaction in the
small group is not conducive to the search for truth. Rather the dynamics of
the small group enhances love and caring for one another, the affirming
acceptance of members, the conscious attempt to make Biblical truths applicable
to one's lives. In the process a price is paid. Wuthnow
cites the example of a member of a group with strong convictions on how rich
Christians should behave and referred to some as biblical imperatives. But
members of the group offered their own personal applications and in the process
weakened the force of these imperatives. "Before long, each member of the
group was feeling better. Imperatives had been transformed into personal
opinions. The biblical imperatives were not only palatable; they were downright
comforting" (1994, 201). The form of spirituality seen in small groups
helps people feel better rather than challenging them to move beyond their
present situation. It "inoculates." Wuthnow
says, "At one time, theologians argued that the chief purpose of humankind
was to glorify God. Now it would seem that the logic has been reversed: the
chief purpose of God is to glorify humankind" (1994, 18). This reversal
happens because the concern of small groups is not usually truth or goodness
but how to help us get along in life. Members are the judge of its worth. In
the past there was the concern with truth, creeds and doctrines. Now this is
not discussed.
Another
phenomenon is also not helpful to the inquiry of truth. Groups have certain
taboos on "cross-talk" which prevent different opinions from being
challenged. A person can read a paragraph or a Scriptural passage and make a
comment about what he thinks it means and another person can make an absolutely
contradictory comment and nobody will say which is right or wrong (1994, 201).
The result is an exceptional level of tolerance for diversity.
4.3 At the end of the day the direction that
a small group or cell group takes would depend on the leadership of the local
church. If the leadership is firm in pursuing its distinctiveness and truth and
influences the direction of the small/cell group accordingly, then members
would grow in that direction. But if the focus of the church is on ministering
to the practical needs of members, or using small groups as a means for church
growth (Wuthnow, 1994, 349-352; see also Hiebert, 1993, 72-73) then the problem of pluralism would
not be solved. Wuthnow argues that small groups are
not a panacea for all the problems of the church. Indeed if we want to
revitalise the church while maintaining the discipline of inquiry it would be
wise to take the suggestion of Wuthnow that churches
adopt a "broader multipurpose programme" which does not entail small
groups necessarily being the principal activity of the church. Such a broader
multipurpose programme brings "opportunities for learning, worship, and
service as well as fellowship" (1994, 363-64).
5 Rationalization
and its impact on spirituality
5.1 Another aspect of spirituality is how the
self is cultivated, transformed, or changed by way of holiness. This is the
motivation to attain new spiritual heights. The two are related. One's understanding of himself as a Christian will motivate
him to aspire to greater holiness. There is a connection with the practice of
spirituality with another facet of modernity -- that of rationalization.
Sociologists talk about theoretical rationalization and functional rationalism.
The former relates to the field of science and philosophy. Its effect on
Christianity is to pressure theologians to translate their faith in terms of
natural science and philosophy, to "demythologize" theology. God is
progressively "shrunk." Others may develop a "siege"
mentality, withdrawing from social interaction. Functional rationalization
refers to the use of rational control (meaning bureaucratic or management methods)
to run all the spheres of human affairs.
The effect
of functional rationalization on the running of the church can be profound. In
the area of church leadership it means the application of management principles
to the running of the church. To a certain extent, and since plans have to be
made, this is essential. But how does one draw the line where faith comes in?
What is there to stop Christian leaders from using such tools as a means to
bludgeon the pastor or chairman into resigning just as the CEO is dismissed if
unacceptable losses are incurred by the company? What is there to assess the
spirituality of a church except the growth it has enjoyed? How would churches
judge mission boards sending missionaries to areas which are hostile to the
gospel and where there are no results to show for? As a result, management
methods have affected the practice of Christian spirituality
Hunter
(1983, 73-84) has studied the evangelical practice of spirituality and how
functional rationalization has affected it. He lists three facets: first, the
conversion process; second, prayer and the Quiet Time; and finally, the
practice of witnessing. He notes that the effect of modernity is the increased
tendency toward "systematization, codification and methodization."
This, of course, is paralleled in marketing and the effect is that of
"mass production and widespread distribution and consumption while
maintaining a high degree of quality control over the product." I
summarize his findings below.
5.2.1 The conversion experience is systematized
into specific steps, even though most methods state explicitly that there is no
"tidy little formula" One example is Billy Graham (1977, 167-78),
First you
must recognize what God did: that He loved you so much He gave His Son to die
on the cross. Second, you must repent for your sins. It's not enough to be
sorry; repentance is that turnabout from sin that is emphasized. Third, you
must receive Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord. This
means that you cease trying to save yourself and accept Christ without
reservation. Fourth, you must confess Christ publicly. This confession is a
sign that you have been converted. (1977, 167-78).
The Campus
Crusade model is somewhat similar. It is enshrined in the "Four Spiritual
Laws"
Law One. God
loves you, and offers you a wonderful plan for your life. Law Two. Man is
sinful and separated from God. Therefore, he cannot know and experience God's
love and plan for his life. Law Three. Jesus Christ is God's only provision for
man's sin. Through him you can know and experience God's love and plan for your
life. Law Four. We must individually receive Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord; then we can know and experience God's love
and plan for our lives. . . . Receiving Christ involves turning to God from
self (repentance) and trusting Christ to come into our lives to forgive our
sins and to make us the kind of people He wants us to be. (Bright,
1965).
In other
words the conversion process is codified and systematized. Once this is done
the next step is to create training programmes and materials to teach such
methods to the faithful so that the conversion process is replicated. Finally
the process is mass produced and seminars are organized for churches.
5.2.2 The second facet of spirituality is prayer.
Here again there is codification, systematization and methodization.
One good representative is the Navigators. The Seven Minutes with God puts the practice of "Quiet Time"
in a very neat package.
Lets put these seven minutes together:
1/2 Prayer
for guidance, Psalm 143:8
4 Reading the Bible, Psalm 119:18
2 1/2 Prayer: Adoration, 1 Chronicles 29:11;
Confession, 1 John 1:9;
Thanksgiving, Ephesians
5:20; Supplication, Matthew 7:7
____________
7 minutes
Another
example is the popular resource for "quiet time" Our Daily Bread, published by Radio Bible Class. One of the reasons
why such a book is popular is that everything necessary for a Quiet Time is
conveniently packaged. Each day there is a set routine where one would read a
page from the booklet. A Bible verse is conveniently printed on the page,
together with the thought for the day, and some appropriate verses from a hymn
or a poem. There are no questions asked of the reader and as such he can read
the page rather passively and consider this as his quiet time. It is so
convenient that the booklet can be read "on the run."
5.2.3 The third area is evangelism. Here again the
rationalization is evident if we look at some of the organization methods.
Hunter (1983, 81-82) gives the organizational levels of Evangelism Explosion.
1. Prayer
partners
2. Trainees
3. Junior
Trainers
4. Lieutenants
5. Assistant
Lay Teachers/Trainers
6 Teachers/Trainers
(lay and staff)
7. Leadership
Clinic Administrators
8. Leadership
Clinic Teachers.
Hunter
argues that with such a structured hierarchy multiplication is easy as it
enables uniform standards to be maintained. One can say that the primary goals
are replication and quality control, which is similar to that of corporate
organizations or business franchises.
5.3.1 The first impression that one gets in
reading Hunter is that he is too negative. The ministry of these organizations
has made it possible for Christianity to grow, for Christians to adhere to the
faith, for people to be socialized into a community where they are nurtured and
strengthened in the faith, and for Christians to be mobilized. These Christians
have a significant impact on society. Sng
(1993, 286-88) speaks of the significant contributions of parachurch
organizations in Singapore. One can argue that when you are "in the
battlefield" you do not have the luxury of reflecting over the niceties of
the methods.
Indeed, some
leaders of organizations have already begun the process of self-evaluation. Jim
Petersen, for example, makes the following statement in the very first
statement of the first chapter in his book Lifestyle
Discipleship. The Challenge of Following Jesus in Today's World:
"THIRTY YEARS OF DISCIPLESHIP PROGRAMS, AND WE ARE NOT DISCIPLED."
Petersen notes that their goals "were to live as disciples of Jesus Christ
and to multiply their numbers until they filled the world." Yet he is now
asking the question of whether discipleship can meet the challenge of modernity
(1993, 16).
It is therefore
in the spirit of contributing to the process of self-evaluation that I that I
have highlighted Hunter's points and make the following remarks.
5.3.2 There are problems brought about by
functional rationalization. The first issue is philosophical. There is a
profound effect on spirituality when we use modern management techniques.
Management techniques are not neutral. They bring a new mindset while at the
same time undermine the old. Postman (1993, 13-14) speaks of the profound
changes on culture as a result of technology. His analysis is applicable here.
He gives the example of the common practice of assigning grades to students'
examinations. This is so natural nowadays that we do not think twice about the
significance. This practice, which began in 1792, was a step in constructing a
mathematical representation of reality. Nowadays
"psychologists, sociologists, and educationists find it quite impossible
to do their work without numbers. They believe that without numbers they
cannot acquire or express authentic knowledge" (1993, 13). Postman argues
that "to say that someone should be doing better work because he has an IQ
of 134, or that someone is a 7.2 on a sensitivity scale, or that this man's
essay on the rise of capitalism is an A- and that man's is a C+ would have
sounded like gibberish to Galileo or Shakespeare or Thomas Jefferson (1993,
13)." To Postman modern day assessments make sense to us but not to the
ancients because "our minds have been conditioned by the technology of numbers
so that we see the world differently than they did." In other words each
tool or technology has a predisposition to create a new mindset with a
different set of agendas. "To a man with a pencil, everything looks like a
list. To a man with a camera, everything looks like an image. To a man with a
computer, everything looks like data. And to a man with a grade sheet,
everything looks like a number (1993, 14). It is in this context that Postman
cites Marshall McLuhan's famous aphorism, "The medium is the message."
If
management techniques are applied in the way we run the church it would appear
therefore that a new set of agendas would be in place. The question is whether
these agendas would be appropriate or effective in making an impact on society
and deepening our spirituality. Let me use an example from society. From the
efficiency point of view one good way of making sure a traffic policeman is
doing his job is the number of bookings he makes on errant motorists. Some may
even be tempted to think that this can be a criterion of a successful road
transportation policy. Now one can put up a fairly
good case that fines and demerit points have a deterrent and salutary effect.
Because motorists are deterred from speeding, accident rates are likely to be
lower. (In the United States there was resistance to the change of speed limit
from 55 miles per hour to 65 mph on interstate freeways because studies show
that there is correlation between greater speeds and higher rates of
accidents). But no one would argue that the number of bookings, or for that
matter other enforcement measures, is the only criterion of success in road
management and safety. Such an approach would be reductionistic.
It offers only a partial solution. Motorists still cause death through
accidents not attributable to speed. Similarly, a systematic approach to the
conversion experience, prayer, and witnessing may be successful, but it may not
be the end all in one's spiritual pilgrimage. Hence, each management tool has
it intended effect and unintended consequences. A person has to start with some
basic knowledge of the Christian faith. Convenient and
practical steps in growth is certainly invaluable. The danger is in
thinking that everything that needs to be done can be reduced into easy steps.
5.3.3 The second problem with functional
rationalization has to do with choice. Christians, like consumers, have a
choice in the use of materials. We purchase Bible Study resources or Quiet Time
materials from a supplier. We have a choice either to buy or to use one set of
materials in preference to another. This is related to the notion of managerial
rationalism, mentioned as an aspect of modernity. People choose the ministry
they want to be involved in just as, the more cynical would say, they choose
products in the market-place. Organizations must "sell" in a way
which will attract Christians. However, as we have seen earlier in the example
of the media, the element of choice has a profound effect on society. With
regards to television, one effect is that viewers tend to have a short
attention span. The presence of choice, enshrined in the TV remote control,
only exacerbates this effect. The same situation will happen to those using
materials which are easy to digest and require only a passive mind. Some time back,
Christianity Today (24 October 1994)
printed an advertisement for a resource for children with the caption "How
do you turn a minute into a lifetime?" The materials is entitled "One-Minute Bible 4 Students." How
will the children turn out in life? Some important truths can be reduced to a
page or a few minutes of reflection but there are profound truths which
required more intense mental energy and a focused mind. People talk about the
instant-food mentality in the pursuit of the spiritual life or in spiritual
growth. There is, in my opinion, a direct link between this mentality and the
age of show business.
5.3.4 The third danger of functional
rationalization is the unintended consequence on the pastoral ministry. The
ministry has undergone a dramatic shift in terms of its paradigm. It is quite
usual nowadays to view the pastor as some sort of a Chief Executive Officer.
The traditional image is a shepherd who leads by being who he is, warning his flock of the dangers ahead, and
rescuing those who may be in trouble. Now if the pastor does not measure to the
performance requirements of the
church he may be fired. There are other minor but telling signs. A manager is
constantly in contact with his customers and his subordinates. So pastors must
be in constant contact. As a result pastors carry pagers and/or hand phones.
CEOs are answerable to the board with their performance. It is a numbers game.
Therefore we see the increasing tendency of pastors putting in a number just
for the sake of plugging a number in their annual plans. CEOs are assessed for
their aptitude. As such there is an emphasis on improving vocational training.
Just as people get their MBAs, so pastors upgrade to a
DMin or go for specialized skills.
Because the
pastoral paradigm has shifted from being
to doing the pastoring
is more likely to be focused on church growth and other performance indicators.
Having some form of accountability is good and no one should hide behind
spirituality ("leaving results to the Lord"). Yet the danger is the excessive
concern with numbers which at the end of the day destroy the faith that we
ought to be nurturing. This is the paramount concern of Guinness in Dining With The
Devil. The Megachurch Movement Flirts with Modernity.
Thus far I
have discussed the effects of modernity on spirituality as seen in
privatization, pluralism, and rationalization. What is the solution? Can the
effects be mitigated? I think that if there is one way it is through discipline. Simply put a spiritually disciplined Christian is
probably better equipped to say no to the temptations of life, and the
challenge of discerning the needs of the hour. But this seems to be somewhat
out of fashion nowadays. One of the problems that we have to deal with is the
traditional antithesis between law and grace.
6.1 There are several opposing tendencies as
far as the attitudes to these disciplines are concerned. On the one hand there
are those who argue that the disciplines are the hallmarks of spirituality and
godliness. After all the apostle Paul told Timothy to
train or discipline oneself for godliness (1 Tim 4:7). One finds books teaching
such disciplines and extolling their virtues. On the other hand there are those
who deride such disciplines as legalism. Like the Pharisee such practitioners
often end up showing how much more "spiritual" they are than the
other. A far better way is for the discipline to come naturally. A third group
may feel that the practice of the disciplines often leads to a situation where
the Christian merely "cultivates his spiritual life." Christianity
becomes in effect a privatized religion, something which we have just
highlighted.
The
above-mentioned second group who criticize these methods as legalistic argue
for a freedom from the commitment which constitute the very distinctive of the
disciplines. Nonetheless, unbridled freedom is not the solution either. We fool
ourselves if we thank that a habit of practising spiritual graces will come
automatically. It will only come automatically if it is embedded in the personality. Richard Foster remarked that "the
playing of Tchaikovsky's Pathetique
is easy to the accomplished musician who has labored
until it flows out in his very body language; but until then it is difficult,
painfully difficult" (1981, 8). We may argue that such discipline or
standard is legalism. There is some truth in this, just as there is some truth
in the criticism of the Puritan's concept of spirituality. Yet we must bear in mind
that there is a tension between the outward expression and the inner reality.
Without the outward we may be just licentious in our behaviour. Without the
inward we can become hypocritical and no different from the Pharisees. After
all, did not Paul tell us that we are free in Christ? Yet there is a paradox
when Paul tells us in the "next breath" that we should not allow
freedom as an excuse or an occasion to sin (Gal 5). Dietrich Bonhoeffer warns us of the danger of "cheap
grace" if we do not hold the correct balance between freedom and
obedience. He writes "only he who believes is obedient, and only he who is
obedient believes" and argues that we cannot separate the two (1959,
69-74).
The third
group has a point when it says that the focus on spiritual disciplines often
results in a privatized Christian who is busily concerned about his spiritual
walk while the world passes by. Again, there is a certain truth is this charge,
especially when the Christian stops just at the cultivation of the spiritual
disciplines. The goal is godliness. This godliness is centred not on the self
but on being able to detach oneself from the lure of the flesh. I am not
arguing for a life of asceticism but for the freedom from the temptations of
the trappings of this world. Singapore in the 1990s is a society driven by the
desire to accumulate wealth, specifically the accumulation of private
properties. Christians live in this world. To be able to "detach"
oneself from this world may mean the ability and the courage to say that he has
sufficient wealth. This detachment should be so embedded that one should be
able to overcome such doubts and temptations. If we cannot, and to the extent
that Christians suffer from such a desire to accumulate wealth, our witness
will be affected.
Perhaps it
was the strength of Eric Liddell's conviction that caused him to make his
decision not to run on that faithful Sunday in 1924 because he believed in
keeping the Sabbath (Whitney, 1991, 9), a decision immortalised in the movie Chariots of Fire. But I would be
surprised if Liddell did not agonise over the decision or if the decision had
nothing to do with the "training in godliness." Such was the impact
of his conviction that even after forty years people are still inspired by his
actions. When Allan Wells of Scotland won the 100 metres dash in the Moscow
Olympics in 1980, he said, "That's for Eric Liddell" (Whitney, 1991,
9). To effect a transformation of society we need to be transformed personally.
To do that we ought to have a realistic way of effecting
personal change, taking care not to deify the method.
6.2 The practice of the disciplines, I
believe, has the secondary effect of training the mind in the habit of
discerning, weighing, and reflecting on issues which may have serious
implications on living as a Christian. He is less likely to go for the quick
and easy way to fix his problem, which is often a superficial answer. This
habit goes a long way in redressing the negative impact of the "show
business" mind. But there is more than just redressing the negatives. We
"enter" Christianity in a given social framework. We are
"born" into a family associated with a Baptist, a Methodist, or some
other denomination. Or we are converted into a Pentecostal, a Presbyterian or
an Anglican communion. Each of these communities has its own ethos, distinctives, history and tradition. We practice the
spirituality in the context of those traditions. Sometimes we are associated
with such a tradition because it is the only one we know. On the other hand
there may be a choice. We may be attracted by certain features in a particular
tradition.
Yet, if you
think about it, there is no "choice" after a choice has been made.
This is so because once a person is "socialized" into any society he
will find that it is not so easy to break off from this mold.
In this sense he needs to transcend the ethos or the culture that he is in. In
order to do so a person must possess strengths and capabilities. These come
after years of training. During the time of Martin Luther it was quite likely
that many people felt the same misgivings as Luther regarding works, grace and
salvation. One example is the critic Erasmus. Scholars have noted that late
mediaeval exegetes like Nicholas of Lyre and Hugh of St Victor had already
shown signs of a break from the dominant allegorical type of interpretation of
the day (Preus, 1969). These late medieval exegetes
went back to the scriptures and propounded a literal reading of the Bible. But
Luther transcended the culture that he was brought up in, whereas Erasmus died
a Catholic. One certainly needs a spark of genius to break the barrier of
"the given." But training and discipline were needed to articulate
that glimmer of a spark into a coherent picture. He needed the critical ability
to read the Bible in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek. These come not from a short QT
with God every day, but from a long time of work and study. I am not saying
that a person must study Biblical languages. Before the Reformation the Bible
was generally only available in Latin, with some manuscripts copied in the
original languages. Now Bibles are easily available and translated into many
languages. The discipline that may be relevant now is a habit of subjecting
society to critical awareness. This comes from a study of social science,
history, and theology. Indeed, Mark Noll notes that the Reformers like Luther
and Calvin emphasized the necessity of education. Similarly, the Puritans
"were equally insistent upon a comprehensive engagement with
learning" (1994, 59).
It may be interesting
to note that if one is brought up in the context of a particular ethos he may
not even have access to the whole counsel of God. If the daily diet he gets is
a dose of some spiritual snippet he may not be reading the Bible in its
entirety or even whole books of the Bible. Now, each tradition stresses
different aspects in the Bible. Luther was reputed to have rediscovered the
doctrine of grace when he read the Psalms. It is very plausible that one would
go through the motions of religion without being conscious of how much the
tradition that he belongs to has departed from the revealed Word. It is in this
context that I used Amos at the very beginning of the paper. The prophet Amos
(5:18-20) noted that his contemporaries' understanding of the Day of the Lord
is completely off the mark. They are like a man who fled from a lion only to
meet a bear, or as though a man comes home safely and rests his hands on the
wall only to be bitten by a snake. The Day of the Lord will not be a time of
light but of darkness and judgment. This is the danger confronting any age in
Christendom.
6.3 The above discussion starts with the
individual effort of facing the problem of a privatized Christianity. There are
other avenues. One must not forget that Christians are called into a community.
This means that the Christian does not cultivate godliness alone. Rather he
belongs to a community which supports and reinforces his values, mentality, and
approaches to dealing with the challenges faced in the world. The early church
was able to revolutionize the ancient world because people were willing to
train themselves to be godly while at the same time being associated with
communities. Although I have dealt with the negative aspects of small groups
and how they reinforce pluralism rather than combat it, the impact of a correct
understanding of community that is alive and open to God's working can be
tremendous. This idea of the community is beyond the scope of this paper and
will be dealt with by Wayne Johnson.
6.4 One would be forgiven the impression from
reading this paper that there is a general tone of pessimism. Christianity has
been too much affected by the force of modernity. I recognize the impact of
modernity. This is a challenge to Christianity. If anything one result is an
environment which is much akin to the early church. Scholars have noted the
fact that the problem of pluralism, one of the attributes of modernity, is not
new (Carson, 1993, 42). The early church was socially located in a very
pluralistic environment. That did not stand in the way for the early church in
making its impact and inroads. They did not hide behind the
"cultural" crutches of belonging to a "Christian culture"
but instead they got down to work. We can and must do likewise. It does mean
that the church needs to be more creative in her apologetic task. Jacques Ellul (1986, 33-39) argues that the early church was an
"explosive ferment calling everything into question in the name of the truth
that is in Jesus Christ." The irony or the tragedy was that when it became
the state religion of Rome it lost this impetus and indeed restored pagan
"culture," the legends, the deities, the spirits, and the pagan
world-view.
We should
also understand the fact that secularization or modernity has not resulted in
the shrinking of faith. Indeed, religion may flourish. The sad thing is that
faith may have accommodated. Sociologists like Berger have pointed out that
despite the increase in knowledge, people have become more credulous.
Sociologists do not just write off religion as a thing of the past. The
challenge of modernity is indeed very real and serious. It is not
insurmountable. The first step is to recognize the danger of modernity. By
God's grace we can meet it. My solutions for meeting the
challenge of modernity is not new. It is basically the same prescription
but the rationale is contextualized within a new framework -- that of
modernity.
Reprinted with permission from Singapore Bible College. Originally published as Chapter 6 in Ministry in Modern
Singapore, Wong Chan Kok and Chuck Lowe, editors,
1997.
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[i][1]It may be noted, however, in the 1990s, especially after the breakup of the Soviet Union or perhaps contributing to its breakup, there has been a rekindling of tribal and ethnic consciousness. This trend does not seem to be confined to the former Soviet Union.
[ii][2]See Christopher Lasch (1979) for a more profound analysis of the change in mindset in a market economy which resulted in increased consumption. J. I. Packer, in an article on leisure and life-style (1993, 356), has noted that western society since the Second World War has grown affluent and promotes "spending rather than saving, self-indulgence rather than self-improvement, and amusement at all costs." In another article (1987, 45-70) he laments over the consequences of such a hedonistic mentality for Western Christianity. It "bends holiness out of shape, and . . . has a very tight hold on our priorities."
[iii][3]The irony is that even though Protestantism's ascetic philosophy is antithetical to a luxurious lifestyle and to self-centred gain Protestantism "freed capitalism from economic tradition" (Lyon, 1987, 39). It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss how much Protestantism contributed to the rise in capitalism.
[iv][4]The reader may be interested in following an analysis of this change by Lasch (1979, 52-29).
[v][5]Note that privatization and pluralism are components of modernity. Modernity as we have discussed is sometimes referred as secularism.