Jesus Christ for the Chinese: A Contextual Reflection
Enoch Wan
Professor, Western Seminary
Published in Global Missiology, Contextualization, Oct. 2003, www.globalmissiology.net
Abstract
The final article in a series, we examine three factors (i.e. historical reality, geographic proximity and cultural identity) that caused the traditional Chinese’s perception of Christianity being “Jesus Christ from the West.” A Sino-Christology is proposed which includes a method of “relational theologizing”, a definition of salvation as reconciled relationship vertically with God and horizontally with fellow man, and an application of Chinese values (i.e. honor and shame).
First published in Chinese Around the World, 2000 (A Ministry of Chinese Coordination Centre of World Evangelism) and posted at http://www.missiology.org.
Send comments to: ewan@westernseminary.edu
Review:
This is the last of a 7-part series on Chinese culture and Christianity under
the major heading-- "East & West" #1 "Sailing in
the Western Wind"--dealing with the history of Christianity in China and
Western influence on China. #2 "Christianity in the Eye
of Traditional Chinese"--Christianity in China was described and Western
influences on Chinese Christianity were analyzed. #3 is
transitional for #4 - #6 which covered matters related to "the challenge
of" and "the change for” contextualization for contemporary Chinese
that is both scripturally sound and culturally relevant.
I.
Introduction
According to the perception of the “traditional Chinese” (defined as “a
non-Christian Chinese with strong Chinese cultural orientation and ethnic
pride,” Wan 1999a:17), “Jesus Christ from the West” must be rejected
and Christian efforts in evangelizing Chinese must be resisted. This
article will begin with the examination of the three factors (i.e. historical
reality, geographic proximity and cultural identity) that caused the
traditional Chinese’s perception of Christianity being “Jesus Christ from
the West.”
On the other hand, a contextualized Christianity for the Chinese in terms of
“Jesus Christ for the Chinese” can be relatively easier to be understood by
traditional Chinese. Serious efforts in contextualizing Christianity
for the Chinese are required so that the “Jesus Christ from the West”
can become “Jesus Christ for the Chinese.” This is both the
motivation behind this contextual reflection and the focus of the latter part
of this study.
FIGURE 1 – PLAN OF STUDY
TYPES
OF CHRISTOLOGY |
DIMENSION
|
|
“JESUS
CHRIST FROM THE WEST” – |
Review
historically |
Describe |
“JESUS
CHRIST FOR THE CHINESE of Sino-theology |
Analyze
& |
Sino-Christology
|
II.
Christology and Sino-Christology
Definition of several key terms is to be offered before any meaningful
discussion on Sino-Christology. "Christianity" is "the
belief of individual follower and the institutionalized community/organization
of the faithful that venerate Jesus Christ as Lord, the Bible as truth, the
Church as the earthly agent of God, and the Kingdom of
God as the ultimate end of human destiny." (Wan 2000a:18)
"Contextualization" is "the efforts of formulating, presenting
and practicing the Christian faith in such a way that is relevant to the
cultural context of the target group in terms of conceptualization, expression
and application; yet maintaining theological coherence, biblical integrity and
theoretical consistency." (Wan 2000a:18-19)
"Christology" can be defined as "the systematic understanding
and presentation of the personhood (i.e. his humanity and divinity) and
performance (i.e. work and office) of Jesus Christ." "Modern
theological discussion continues to be a witness to the centrality of Jesus
Christ himself in matters of faith and is dominated by the two closely related
questions: `Who is Jesus Christ?' and `What has he done for the world?'
The context in which these questions are raised has, however, changed."
(Wallace 1984: 226)
"Sino-Christology" is the contextualized version of Christology for
the Chinese and is part of "Sino-theology" which can be defined as
"a unique theological orientation specifically designed for the Chinese
people in contra-distinction from TWT: employing the Chinese cognitive pattern
(e.g. ‘both-and’ vs. ‘either-or'
of TWT) and Chinese cognitive process (e.g. synthetic vs. dialectic of TWT),
the Chinese way of social interaction (e.g. relational/complementary vs.
dichotomous/confrontational of TWT), Chinese vocabulary (e.g. ‘tien’ - heaven), Chinese cultural themes (e.g. group
solidarity such as the family vs. self-fulfillment of TWT), etc. The goal
is not to transplant Christianity in the ‘pot’ of Eastern culture but to plant
it in the Chinese cultural soil so it can take root, flourish and grow."
(Wan 2000a:19)
“Jesus
Christ from the West” is Western Christianity transported to China by military
force, with foreign concepts, cultural elements, etc.; whereas “Jesus
Christ for the Chinese” is contextual Christianity being transplanted in
the cultural soil of China and the spiritual soul of the Chinese. The
former is historical reality whereas the latter being an ideal with strong
desirability.
III.
Jesus Christ from the West: Historical reality and geographic proximity
Christianity was brought in by the Nestorian missionaries through the border on
the Southwest during the Tang Dynasty. Christianity of the Catholic
strand was carried to China by Franciscan missionaries from Europe during the
Yuen Dynasty and suffered severe blow due to the internal conflicts of the
“rites controversy.” The imperial government, plagued by corruption and
many problems, declined in power while European countries had experienced
explosive growth (in science, technology, commerce, navigation, etc.) and
intensified in colonial expansion and missionary enterprise (Wan 1999b).
Repeatedly China’s imperial government was defeated by Western countries and
was humiliated in the hands of Western powers with many unequal treaties, e.g.
the Anglo-Sino “Opium War” of 1839-1842 that forced China to open five sea
ports to the British in August 1842 in the Treaty of Nanking and other Western
countries (e.g. the U.S. & France in 1844, Belgium in 1845, Sweden and
Norway in 1847), etc.
“Jesus Christ from the West” was not merely a perception of traditional
Chinese; it is a historical reality and geographic proximity due to the Western
imports to China, e.g. gunboat policy, colonial expansion, commercial
interests, missionary enterprise, etc.
FIGURE 2 - THE TWO PATTERNS OF THEOLOGIZING (Wan 1997a:4)
TOPIC |
EITHER
|
OR |
Christology |
Either the deity of Christ Either the Christ of kerygma |
or the humanity of Christ or the historical Jesus |
Soteriology |
Either God’s sovereignty Either faith Either grace Either evangelism for conversion |
or human free will or reason or work or social gospel as witness |
Ecclesiology |
Either the universal church Either organic unity |
or local congregation or organizational uniformity |
Eschatology |
Either already realized |
or yet to come |
Bibliology |
Either divine revelation |
or human authorship |
Jesus Christ from the West as shown in Figure 2 can be illustrated by
the centuries-long christological controversy of the
first several hundred years of the Christian church due to the strong hold of
the "either-or" perspective on the nature of Christ by Christians of
the West. In the last few decades, this "either-or" version of
Jesus Christ
of the West debate has
been altered by biblical scholars in the New Testament studies of the
"historical Jesus" in response to the neo-orthodox insistence on the
"Christ of the kerygma".
IV.
Jesus Christ for the Chinese
As mentioned
before, Christianity has been perceived as “Jesus Christ from the West”
for many reasons: e.g. factors such as historical reality and geographic
proximity of Christianity being imported by missionaries from the West, along
with the military domination, political colonization, commercial and industrial
expansion, etc. of the West. The propositional conceptualization and impersonal
presentation of Jesus Christ and salvation (e.g. the “Four Spiritual Laws”) by
Western missionary and westernized Chinese Christian have less appeal to the
traditional Chinese.
Another reason for the perceived “Jesus Christ from the West” is
due to the presentation by Western missionaries at the beginning of Chinese
church history. Instead of appealing to the “both-and” mind set of the
traditional Chinese, they had promulgated and propounded the type of systematic
theology that emphasizes “either the deity of Christ” or “the
humanity of Christ;” either “the Christ of kerygma”
or “the historical Jesus” (see Figure 2).
In addition, there can be cultural explanation for the phenomenon of the
perceived “Jesus Christ from the West” as presented below.
4.1
Cultural analysis and comparison
In TWT as well as the way Chinese converts usually being taught by Western
missionary, Jesus Christ is being regarded as the Savior of hell-bound sinners
who need God’s forgiveness by justification through personal faith in the
atoning death of Christ.
An explanation for the socio-cultural background of this “Western Christology”
is in order. As stated in previous articles, “Western culture has a
Greco-Roman, politco-legal base and Judeo-Christian
ethic foundation. The Greek social system of city-state, the Roman law,
etc. have been well developed for ‘millennia’ in the West. The influence
of the Judeo-Christian value system and moral code has left its mark in the
mind and heart of people in the context of Western civilization, so much so
that anthropologists who have conducted cross-cultural comparative studies have
classified the Western culture as a ‘guilt culture’ in contrast to the ‘shame
culture’ of the East (e.g. Japanese, Chinese, Vietnamese, etc.)” (Wan
1995a:156). The modernist Westerner of science background would also
appreciate the presentation of the person and work of Jesus Christ in a
logical, scientific and rational manner such as the “Four Spiritual Laws.”
Individuals from the low-context of Ameri-European
cultural background would appreciate much the emphasis on the individual aspect
of salvation (e.g. the saying, “God does not have grandchildren”) and the
strong emphasis on the absolute necessity of exercising one’s own will in
individual decision in TWT.
4.2
Proposed Sino-Christology
In the light of the previous description and comparison of Ameri-European
(AE) and Sino-Asian (SA) cultural differences and the different ways of
theologizing in TWT and Sino-theology, three aspects of Sino-Christology are
proposed below.
A.
Essentially, Jesus Christ as – the “tien-ren-he-yi-di-tao 天人合一的道 “
(heaven-man-unite-one-tao)
As explained previously, the low-context AE cultural tradition with “either-or”
way of theologizing led to the emphasis on either “the deity of Christ” or
“the humanity of Christ,” either “the Christ of kerygma”
or “the historical Jesus” (see Figure 2) in TWT. In
contrast, the high-context SA cultural tradition with the Chinese cognitive
pattern/process characterized by “holistic” and “integrative” perspective,
emphasis on “unity,” theologizing in “both-and” paradigm, Jesus Christ should
be contextualized to be the “tien-ren-he-yi-di-tao
天人合一的道 “ (heaven-man-unite-one-tao). The incarnate Jesus and the resurrected
Christ is “Tao – the God-Man” model (Wan 1985) of “both-and” personal being and
theoretical/theological paradigm. The richness of the terms “tien天 “ (heaven) and “tien-ren-he-yi
天人合一“ (heaven-man-unite-one-tao)
in classical Chinese literature and Chinese religio-philosophical
traditions (of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism) cannot be dealt with here due
to limitation of space (see Wan 1999a:116-164).
FIGURE 3
– “TIEN-REN-HE-YI-DI-TAO” 天人合一的道 (Christ = “tien : heaven” + “ren: man”)
“TIEN” (heaven) – deity |
“REN” (man) -- humanity |
1. Eternal &
infinite, changeless & faithful (Mic
5:2; Jn 8:58; Col 1:17; Rev 1:8; Heb 13:8;
2Ti 2:13) |
1 With
beginning & end, with flesh & blood (Mt 1; Lk
2:40, 24:39) |
2. all powerful: -creator & sovereign (Jn 1:3,10) -over sin & sickness (Lk 7:48; Mt 8-9) -over satan
& death (Jn 5:22, 11:44; Rev 20-21) |
2. seemed
powerless: -tired, tempted, wept (Mt
26-27) -betrayed &
crucified (Jn 18-20) -lesser than the Father (Jn 5:19; 1 Co 11:3) |
3. all present –
not limited by time & space (Mt 18:20; Jn
1:48; Jn 3:13) |
3. limited by
time & space (Php 2:5-8; Heb 2:14) -birth & death, on foot &
on schedule |
4. all knowing (Mk 11:2-6; Jn
2:24-25; Lk 5:22; Rev 2:23) |
4. not
knowing (Mk 13:32) |
5. sinless &
holy (Mk 1:24; 1Pe 2:22; Jn 19:4; Ac 3:14) |
5. sin bearer;
judged by God (Is 53; Mk 15:34; Ro 4:25; 1 Co
15:3) |
6. equal with
the Father, love, mercy & forgiving (Jn
5:18; 10:30, 11:36, 15:13; Lk 7:48; Tit 3:5) |
6. submit to the Father (Jn
8:42; Heb 5:8) |
7. truly God
becoming man (Jn
1:1-2, 14; Php 2:5-8; Col 1:15, 2:9; 1Ti 2:5 |
7. truly man but
exhorted and glorified (1Cor 15; Jn
17:2; 17:5; Acts 2:36; Php 2:5-8; |
Nonetheless, “the dual-nature of Jesus Christ the God-man” is clearly
taught in the Scripture and expressed in the Apostle’s Creed and the Nicene
Creed. Jesus Christ is the perfect union of “tien”
and “ren” in the Person of “God-man Tao” as shown in Figure
3 and the perfect model of “both-and” in Sino-theology.
In addition, this “tien-ren-he-yi-di-tao”
is the timeless “logos” or “Tao” (Jn 1:1-5 and 1 Jn 1:1-2 in the Union Version
of the Chinese Bible). He is “the Way” to God (Jn
14:6; Heb 7:15) and the One uniting God with man. He is also the One who
unites Jews and the gentile (Eph 2:11-22), and eschatologically all things (Eph 1:9-10).
B.
Existentially, Jesus Christ as –
-
“the en-qing-zhen-zhu 恩情真主“
(grace-passion-true-Lord)
-
“the zhong-bao 中保” (middle-guarantor)
-
“jiu-shu-zhu救贖主 ”
(save-redeem-lord) and
-
“fu-he-zhe 復和者” (restore-harmony-person)
Due
to the strong emphasis on “guan-xi 關係” (relationship) in Chinese culture
which is of high-context in nature, a method of “relational theologizing” is
proposed for Sino-theology. Relational theologizing is a methodology derived from a close analysis
of the interaction of the Three Persons within the Trinity as discussed in
details elsewhere (see Wan 1996a, Wan 1996b,Wan 1999a:80-114).
Conceptually, relational theologizing is not new for TWT, for
there has been the school of "covenant theology” for centuries. In
contrast to the rationalistic and forensic presentation of Jesus Christ,
Sino-theology is highly relational. This method of relational
theologizing is most adaptable to the primarily agricultural mind-set of people
from the two-thirds-world (i.e. Asia, Africa and Latin America) where strong
personal relationship is of supreme importance. In addition, it is the
“good news” to two types of modern man: the post-industrial man (i.e. those of
high-tech, high-touch, impersonal and alienated socio-cultural context) and the
post-modernist (i.e. those who are being left with nothing after deconstruction
and are in search for truth and significance). (See Wan 2000c)
Culturally, Chinese people try hard to avoid confrontation at all
time and at all cost. Nobody should cause someone to “lose face” and run
the risk of breaking relationship. There are time-honored cultural
practices related to avoid “losing face,” e.g. the use of match-making in traditional
marriage arrangement, the go-between for business dealing, the guarantee of a
reputable person rather than the signing of a legal document, etc.
Therefore, Sino-Christology should include presenting Jesus as: “the en-qing-zhen-zhu
恩情真主“ (grace-passion-true-Lord”), “the zhong-bao 中保” (middle-guarantor), “jiu-shu-zhu
救贖主”(save-redeem-lord), “fu-he-zhe 復和者” (restore-harmony-person).
Salvation is
best understood by the Chinese in terms of reconciled relationship vertically
with God and horizontally with fellow man (wan 1997b; 1999a). Man was
created in the image of God and enjoyed close communion with him before the Fall. However, his misuse of the gift of human free
will brought him punishment and penalty, and severed his relationship with God and
the created order (relationship with others and the natural order
included). Yet God initiated the plan of salvation and implemented
the process of reconciliation with himself in the Son. This relational
reinterpretation of the “Jesus Christ for the Chinese” is summarized in Figure
4 below:
FIGURE 4 – RELATIONAL INTERPRETATION:
JESUS
CHRIST FOR THE CHINESE (SINO-CHRISTOLOGY)
“JESUS
CHRIST FOR THE CHINESE |
HUMAN KIND |
CREATED
ORDER |
“en-qing-zhen-zhu
恩情真主” (grace-passion-true-Lord”)
|
-passionate:
wept ( Jn 11:35, Lk) 19:41;
with anger (Mt 21:12-13, Rev.
6:16) -with grace,
mercy and love (Mt 9:36;
Heb 5:2; Eph 1:7; Jude 22) |
-creator of
all things ( Jn 1:3,10) -ruler
of all things (Eph
1:21; Php 2:6-10) -sustainer
of all things- (Col
1;15-17) |
“jiu-shu-zhu 救贖主” (save-redeem-lord)
-by blood,
Eph 1:7; 1Pet 1:19-20 |
-from
death & destruction, law & sin
(Heb 2:2-18; Gal 4:5; Tit 2:14) |
-all to
God (Isa 49:26) -all finally
(Ro 8:19-20) |
“zhong-bao 中保” (middle-guarantor)
|
-mediator of
God & man (1Ti
2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15;12:24) -mediator by
blood, of New Test.- (Heb
8:6; 9:12-15; 12:24) |
-mediator of
all |
“fu-he-zhe 復和者” (restore-harmony-person)
|
-reconciling
God & man (Ro
5:10; 2 Co 5:17-19; Eph 2:16;
Col 1:20) |
-reconcile
all to God (Col
1:19-20, |
C.
Eschatologically, Jesus
Christ as – “wan-mei-zun-rong-zhu
完美尊榮主“ (perfect-beauty-revered-honor-lord)
Another Chinese
cultural theme is “honor and shame.” As shown in Figure 5 Jesus
Christ is both the shame-bearer for sinners and honor-winner for believers. He did so because of the fall of mankind and the fact that, spiritually
speaking, sin and shame are
closely related. On
the other hand, salvation/redemption
and honor/glory are also closely related.
This culturally relevant understanding
of the Chinese and doctrinally
correct conceptualization of “honor
and shame” in the context
of “rong-ru-shen-xue-lun 榮辱神學論“ (theology of honor/shame) is summarized
in Figure 5.
To the Chinese, “saving
face” is not just a personal concern but others as well, friends and family included. Honor is more important than personal life, property and power. It is the life goal of an individual to live with and strive for, not personally but
for the whole family: nuclear and extended, living members and deceased ancestors. Shame is to be avoided
and causing someone to “lose face” is a terrible mistake. Many would rather commit suicide than living in “shame.” Individual and group action, social and religious
ritual, ceremonial procedure, festival and anniversary,
rule of reciprocity and social
obligation, giving and receiving
gifts, achievement and punishment,
law and regulation, etc. in
Chinese custom and tradition are all tied up in the pursuit of honor and shunning of shame.
The “rong-ru-shen-xue-lun 榮辱神學論“ (theology of honor/shame) is an integration
of Chinese cultural theme
in terms of “honor and shame” and Christian theological teaching of glory/shame. It is in the context of “rong-ru-shen-xue-lun
榮辱神學論“ (theology of honor/shame) that this
other aspect of “Jesus
Christ for the Chinese” is summarized diachronically in Figure
5 below:
Figure 5 - “wan-mei-zun-rong-zhu 完美尊榮主“
(perfect-beauty-revered-honor-lord) - (translated from Wan 1999a:102-105)
HONOR\SHAME |
HONOR-BEAUTY-REVERED-LORD |
HUMAN KIND |
Honor
(pre-fall) |
Pre-incarnation: -glorious prior to incarnation (Jn
17:1) -the fullness and glory of God
(Col 1:5-17) |
-Were created in the image of God (Ge
1:26-28, 2:7) -Were crowned with glory and honor (Ps 8:4-5) -Were made ruler over the
creatures (Ge
1:26-28; Ps 8:6) -Were naked but felt no shame |
SHAME (post- fall) |
Incarnation & crucifixion: -Incarnation, Christ emptying
himself, -Christ redeemed us from the curse
of -was forsaken by God the Father |
-Felt shame and was afraid to see (Ge
3:9-10) -Every inclination of the thoughts
of -Were cursed and punished -God made garments of skin and clothed them in Christ’
righteousness |
Honor
(post-reconciliation) |
Glorification is: -God the Father exalted the
resurrected (Php
2:9-11) -Was raised from the dead and
seated (1 Co 15:4; Mk 16:19; Eph 1:20) -Much superior to the angels (Heb
1:4) -Will come back and judge the
world (Ac 1:11; 17:31) |
-Regain the image of God in Christ (Eph 4:24) -Are new creation in Christ (2 Co
5:17) -Receive power from the Holy
Spirit, -After reconciled with God,
clothed in -Except those who rejected Jesus |
V.
Conclusion
This contextual reflection
on “Jesus Christ for the Chinese”
is the concluding
article of the 7-part series for the column “East & West.” It has been an enjoyable venture for the author
and a valuable opportunity
to interact with readers. Appreciation must be expressed to the able editors
of CATW and the readers who
wrote in via e-mail and other
media. Request was also received to have part of the
series posted in certain website by a non-Chinese missions
professor in the U.S.A.
Further response and comments
are welcome and can be sent to the following e-mail address: Enoch Wan
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